Introduction
The area of the world commonly referred to as the Middle East contains within it areas that have historically been used for the cultivation of vineyards and subsequently wine. Evidence of wine production and the tools utilized within the process has been uncovered at sites stretching back to the mid-sixth millennium, B.C.E (Miller, 2008). These relatively early beginnings in the overall evolution of the culture in the area may be because the production of wine is a fairly straightforward process. It only requires two basic ingredients – that of yeast and grapes. The yeast is used to convert the sugar contained within the grape juice into alcohol, and since they occur naturally together, the only other things need was a way to obtain the grape juice and store it until the end of the fermenting processes ( Zorn, et.al. 1998).
An example of the widespread nature of wine cultivation in the Middle East was discovered in Israel during the 1930s. During the excavation of Tel Nitzana, a portion of Negev that was active between the 5th and 7th centuries C.E., archaeologists working the site discovered a stash of papyri that described in detail the everyday life of the inhabitants of the city. There was evidence, provided by taxation records of the people not only farming the land but also cultivating vineyards and producing wine The papyri in question illustrated evidence that the residents living in the area were not only farmers but cultivated vineyards as well (Haiman, Fabian, 2008).
During the Classical Era in this region or the period that encapsulates the Roman, Hellenistic, and Byzantine periods, winemaking experienced a rise in production, geographical distribution, and a change in the materials utilized in its production. While a comprehensive overview of the entire evolution of the winemaking process is beyond the scope of this paper, a review of the evolution of the winepress is not. This essay will illustrate, through the use of academic literature, and previous archaeological findings the nature of the wine presses used during the classical period, with a specific focus on areas located in present-day Israel, Palestine, and parts of Syria and Jordan.
Geographical Area
In literature, the geographical area commonly referred to as the Levant area is that bordered to the west by the Mediterranean Sea, the Arabian Desert to the south, and the Taurus and Zagros mountains to the north and east respectively. Today it includes the modern countries of Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Jordan, and the Palestinian Territories. It encompasses an area of approximately 194,000 square kilometres.
The climate in the area varies somewhat due to geological and geographical conditions, but mostly the summers are somewhat hot and dry, and the winter season is punctuated by cooler temperatures. Precipitation in the area is both seasonal and sporadic, which has led to various methods of water retention throughout the area (Bar, 2004).
The longer, high-temperature days and the relatively cool, frost-free nights often found in this area make it a somewhat decent area to cultivate the grapevine. The one main problem is controlling the amount of water introduced into the growing environment. However, like all people living in such a relatively dry environment, innovative methods of water management have been utilized.
Roman Era Wine Presses
30BCE-395 CE
One example that is found in the literature of wine presses most likely dating to the Roman-Hellenistic period were those uncovered at the Tell en-Nasbeh excavation site between 1926 and 1935. During this time, William F. Bade oversaw a total of five excavation seasons at the site, which was most likely the ancient site of Mizpah of Benjamin, approximately twelve kilometres to the northwest of present-day Jerusalem. He uncovered a total of two winepresses. Each one appeared to be associated with a nearby Hellenistic-Roman estate (Walsh, Zorn, 1998).
Another example within the historical record was found at Zur Natan, which is a modern settlement found on the edges of the Samarian Hills, approximately 32 kilometres northeast of Tel Aviv. The site of Zur Natan was built upon several ancient ruins and remains, dating from the early Chalcolithic to the late Ottoman eras. During excavation, the extensive evidence of a monastery was uncovered, which included a significant winemaking facility, complete with a treading floor, and two separate holding vats.
In May of 1987, it was determined by area archaeologists that a more systematic study of the area and was conducted on behalf of the Eretz Israel Museum, Tel Aviv University, and the Department of Antiques. According to the preliminary reports provided by the excavation work, approximately 100 wine presses were uncovered, each dating to the Roman and Hellenistic periods (Bankston, et. al. 1990).
Hellenistic Era Wine Presses
323 BCE-27 BCE
In many cases, winepresses uncovered that are dated to the Hellenistic period share many of the same physical and operational characteristics of those dated to the Roman Era. During this period, the number of wine presses, both large and small has shown to increase, most likely indicating stronger demand for wine for both economic and ritual purposes.
While manual wine pressing was still apparent during this time, based on the available excavation sites, more archaeological evidence indicates that there was a movement toward using more screw presses to aid in the increase in the demand for quality wine in the area.
Byzantine Era Wine Presses
330 CE -1453 CE
For the Byzantine Era, the typical wine press was composed of two basic portions. One consisted of a treading surface and a collection hole for the resultant liquid. In the case of an excavation at a Byzantine Era farmhouse at Givat Ehud, near Modi’In, the treading surface, or where the grapes were smashed measured 3.5 by 4 meters and was created out of the bedrock to a depth of approximately 20 centimetres. The sides of the treading area were made higher by adding field stones so that the total height was approximately 1 meter. From this area, a channel measuring approximately 10 centimetres wide led to the collection hole. The collection hole itself was approximately 1.2 to 1.5 meters in size and was measured to be 80 cm deep. In addition, depression was found at the southwest corner of the collection hole, most likely used for the collection of waste products (Hizmi, 1992).
Another example of Byzantine wine presses that have been previously excavated was found in the Negev Desert of Southern Israel. Dating to the end of the Byzantine Era, these smaller wine presses were most likely associated with nearby Islamic farms. They exhibited the same overall orientation as their larger counterparts but did have some significant differences. One, as previously mentioned, was smaller, measuring between one and three meters in diameter, compared to the 3.5-meter sized ones mentioned earlier. Also, where the ones excavated and reported by Hizmi in 1992 were bare stone, the walls of these winepresses were covered with a type of plaster (Haiman, Fabian, 2008).
Of course, these smaller wine presses were not the only type uncovered in the Negev area. In the towns of Avdat, Shivta and Halutza, several what could be considered industrial wine presses were uncovered. One such example was discovered near the outskirts of Halutza. It measured approximately 29 meters by 29 meters, and the walls were constructed, not of plaster or field stones, but carved stones. The treading floor, often smoothed out of the area bedrock, was in this case lined with stone slabs. The resultant liquids from the treading floor were removed via a drainage pipe that led to two separate vats used for storage. Each one of the vats was approximately 2 meters in diameter. Other wine presses with similar size and construction were uncovered in both Avdat and Shivta. The capacity of the treading floors in each case, approximately 20 cubed meters and the volume of the storage vats, approximately 9,000 litres indicate that in this area of the Negev desert during the late Byzantine Era, wine production was very prosperous (Haiman, Fabian, 2008).
Methods of Use
According to much of the archaeological and cultural evidence found in this region of the Middle East, it is believed that much of the grape pressing was not done by machine, but rather by foot until the Hellenistic or Roman period. During this time, evidence indicates that a screw weight press was used by screwing it onto a cylinder containing the grapes. Examples of the remains of this mechanical device have been within present-day Israel from the Byzantine period by both Frankel (1993) and Roll and Avalon (1981). However, it is believed that these screw presses were only supplementary to the traditional method of foot pressing. This assumption is based on the fact that they were most often found in the middle of large treading floors, indicating that the remaining grapes found outside the screw press were trodden by foot (Walsh, Zorn, 1998).
Cultural Considerations
While wine has been viewed as a practical way to save and distribute grapes after harvesting, there were some items of cultural significance that had to be handled during this period, and in this area. For example, many of the Jewish faithful during these periods saw liquids as being ritually unclean. Therefore, workers and field hands who came in contact with the wine by crushing the grapes beneath their feet or within screw-press devices had to have a place to wash away their uncleanliness. Therefore, at least in some excavated areas, a ritual bath area, known as a migwa_ot, have been discovered. In cases where wine presses were associated with agricultural installations, these stepped water installations were also found in nearly twenty sites dating to the Second Temple Period (515 B.C.E. to 70 C.E.) well within the Classical Period. In addition, several ritual baths were found near winepresses in several Samaritan excavations as well, and date to the Late Roman and Byzantine periods.
The proximity of ritual baths to the wine presses excavated would indicate that there was significant demand for ritually pure agricultural products, both within Jerusalem and Judea as a whole. This demand most likely provided an incentive for area farmers and wine cultivators to ensure that the ritual purity of their wine was maintained. Since wine and oil, by their very nature were seen as being unclean, the workers needed to labour without rendering the wine impure. Because of this, the ritual baths were used to immerse the workers in a ritual bath before commencing work (Adler, 2008).
While wine production during the Hellenistic and Roman periods was most likely driven by both cultural and economic stimuli, the overall production was most likely lessened during the late Byzantine Era due to the influences of Islam that were becoming more prevalent during that period. While the culture during the Hellenistic and Roman times allowed for the consumption of wine for ritual and social purposes, in most Islamic areas, this practice was no longer easily tolerated. As such, the wine presses found during the later Byzantine Era were mostly smaller and were most likely lined with plaster, indicating that impurities from the surrounding area were not desired.
Conclusions
Wine production in the ancient near east has been ongoing in one form or another since the sixth millennium B.C.E. Before the onset of the Classic Era and the use of screw press wine presses in much of the area, production was limited to what could be produced by manual labour, usually in small agricultural settings, or for personal use. However, with the combination of foot treading and screw press wine presses that were introduced during the early Roman Era, a significant increase in production and demand was seen. This increase in production and demand increased at a relatively steady rate until the middle of the Byzantine period when emerging cultural influences decreased the demand for wine as a whole.
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